Causal Explanations of Dyslexia

Causal Explanations of Dyslexia Introduction Poor decoding and spelling abilities along with difficulties in precise and fluent recognition of words characterise the learning disability of dyslexia (International Dyslexia Association, 2001). Despite the extensive scientific attention that dyslexia has received there is still much debate about its causal explanation. Recently, Stoodly and Stein (2012) have pointed out that reading is only incidentally affected by this highly heritable neurobiological syndrome with multi-factorial aetiology. For example, it has been found that dyslexics exhibit various difficulties even in motor skills (Ramus, Pidgeon Frith, 2003; Fawcett Nicolson, 1995b;), mathematics (Ackerman Dykman, 1995), balance (Yap van der Leij, 1994), rapid processing (Nicolson Fawcett, 1994a) and working memory (Ramus et al., 2003; Nicolson, Fawcett Dean, 2001). Hence, the essay’s intention is to provide a brief overview of the most established causal explanations, before ultimately focus to the cerebellar deficit hypothesis. Phonological deficit hypothesis (PDH) The majority of dyslexia’s research was dominated by the phonological and magnocellular deficit hypotheses. According to Castles and Friedman (2014), the PDH refers to a wide range of disabilities that derive from the production, perception, manipulation or retention of speech sounds. More specifically, the PDH states that the breaking of the spoken words into phonemes or syllables is the main cause of dyslexics’ reading problems (Nicolson Fawcett, 2001). The theory’s most compelling arguments are its direct relationship with the way that humans learn how to read, as the phonological module is the language’s most basic level (Shaywitz, Morris, Shaywitz, 2008), and the fact that almost all dyslexic children exhibit some kind of phonological deficiency (Stanovich, 1988a). However, the last view is highly debatable with Dehaene (2009) to be one of its strongest advocates and Ramus et al. (2003) and White et al. (2006) to reject it after discovering that som e of their dyslectic participants exhibited only visual and no phonological deficiencies. Furthermore, PDH fails to explain dyslexia’s several secondary deficits, such as balance, memory, visual processing, mild motor coordination, etc. (Nicolson, Fawcett, Brookes Needle, 2010). Double deficit hypothesis (DDH) This theory emerged due to growing evidence that some dyslexic children with poor comprehension and sufficient decoding skills could not be diagnosed as dyslexic, because their symptoms could not be identified as phonological processing deficiencies (Vukovic Siegel, 2006). Thus, Wolf and Bowers (1999) in order to address this problem proposed that readers should be classified according to their adequacy or inadequacy in the cognitive skills of speed naming and phonological processing, with those showing deficiencies in both (DDH) to exhibit the most reading difficulties. This theory was further supported by Turkeltaubetal, Gareau, Flowers, Zeffiro and Eden (2003) who proved that rapid automatising naming-RAN and phonological awareness-PA activated different brain regions. However, Vukovits and Siegel (2006) pointed out that some studies, including theirs, have failed to prove that RAN has a connection with reading development, thus providing limited support to the DDH. Nonetheless, a recent study provided neuroimaging evidence of the involvement of separated brain systems in the processing of the PA and RAN skills, strengthening even more the DDH (Norton et al., 2014). Despite the inconsistent data DDH provides a good explanation about dyslexia’s core symptoms, but fails to take into account the whole spectrum of its various subtypes. Magnocellular deficit hypothesis (MDH) The MDH postulates that dyslexics’ reading problems emerge from their atypical visual or auditory magnocellular pathway-MP, which leads to sensory processing problems (Eden, 1996) due to its underdeveloped large neurones (Stein Talcott, 1999). The hypothesis’ most supportive data came from a post-mortem study in the brains of dyslexics, demonstrating that in the lateral geniculate nucleus the neurones in the MP were misplaced and shrunk by 30% than the controls’ (Galaburda and Livingstone, 1993). This theory has long been confirmed by Lovegrove, Martin, Blackwood, and Badcock, (1980), who proved that dyslexics not only shown lower contrast sensitivity at high temporal frequencies, but at low spatial as well. They also proved that dyslexics’ contrast sensitivity at the high spatial frequencies was enhanced, a finding also confirmed by Mason, Cornelissen, Fowler and Stein (1993). However, despite the above findings, inconsistent data from subsequent studies gave rise to controversies about the MDH’s validity (see Scottum, 2000), as it became clear that the impairment was mild and not present in all the dyslexics (Stein, Talcott, Walsh, 2000). Additionally, studies with small number of participants have failed to replicate Lovegrove’s et al. (1980) findings, probably due to the usage of inappropriate tests (not sensitive) or participants. Cerebellar deficit hypothesis (CDH) Even though the MDH is adequately explaining some of dyslexia’s core manifestations it does not address the common problems of clumsiness, dysgraphia, automating skills, balance, fluency etc. The Automatization deficit hypothesis-ADH (Nicolson Fawcett, 1990) emerged to explain some of the above difficulties, but was not able to specify the underlying brain structure (Fawcett Nicolson, 2004). Hence, the CDH came to address this shortcoming and merged ADH’s cognitive level explanation with its neurological. Thus, one of the CDH’s strengths was its ability to explicate these non literacy problems, which were pointing out the cerebellum and led to its identification as dyslexia’s underlying neurological structure. One of the reasons that the cerebellum was not associated with dyslexia earlier was the notion that it had no relationship with the language. However, Fullbright et al. (1999), proved that reading did involved the cerebellum, a finding also support ed by Scott et al. (2001), who discovered that tumours in the cerebellum were often associated with reading problems. After the emergence of the CDH a number of studies came into sight and provided further support. Specifically, anatomical cerebellar differences were revealed in dyslexics’ grey matter, as it was considerably reduced in both sides of their cerebellar nuclei (Brambati et al., 2004), a discovery recently reconfirmed by Stoodley (2014). However, cerebellar irregularities could not be identified either by Hoeft et al. (2007) or Silani et al. (2005), but this might was due to the selection criteria or dyslexics’ wide heterogeneity of symptoms. Concerning dyslexics’ balance difficulties-BD it was found that they were linked to the cerebellum and served as a by-product of dyslexia (Moe-Nilssen, Helbostad, Talcott Toennessen, 2003), a view also acknowledge by Needle, Fawcett and Nicolson (2007), but not accepted by Loras, Sigmundsson, Stensdotter, and T alcott (2014). Their experiments demonstrated a lack in significant statistical connection between reading and balance in healthy subjects and thus they suggested that when reading problems exist BD could not be accounted as a reliable measurement for the assessment of dyslexia risk (Loras et al., 2014). Although, this in contrast with Viholainen et al. (2011), who did found a correlation and suggested that balance and reading seemed to share a genetic mechanism. This inconsistency maybe explained due to the possibility that this relationship only lies in individuals with some kind of disorder or is just the result of disorder comorbidity. Additionally, studies have revealed that compared to the control group, dyslexics’ volume of the right anterior lobe was significantly smaller (Eckert et al., 2003) and their cerebellum was particularly symmetrical (Rae et al, 2002). On the other hand, CDH generated significant controversy as some of its critics claimed that the cerebellum is just an â€Å"innocent bystander† and not dyslexia’s causal factor, because it might receives compromised input from other cortical or sensory brain areas (Zeffiro Eden, 2001). Even though that this argument seems quite logical, there are not enough data to either support or reject it and only future research will shed further light. After all, in neuroscience research there are not only black and white findings. Furthermore, it is being claimed that cerebellar dysfunction cannot elucidate the whole range of dyslexia’s cases (Stoodley Stein, 2011) and neither is only specific to dyslexia as it also appears to other deficits, such as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder or developmental coordination disorder (Rabeger Wimmer, 2003; Ramus et al., 2003a). According to Stoodley and Stein (2011), there is also the criticism that the cerebellum is not involved in reading and is only responsible for motor skills, but it seems that this has already been refuted with several studies highlighting cerebellum’s involvement in reading (Turkeltaub, Eden, Jones, Zeffiro, 2002), in modulating and refining language (Murdoch and Whelan, 2007), and even in rhyming (Booth, Wood, Lu, Houk Bitanet, 2007), but no consensus has yet been established. With no doubt there is some truth in each of these criticisms, but more and more data provide a stronger support to the CDH. Conclusion It is undeniable that each hypothesis adds a little bit to the general picture and explains dyslexia’s causality from a different angle, by overlapping and complementing each another. Future research should focus more on imaging studies in order to identify each underlying neural mechanism related to dyslexia and aim to a unified deficit theory, possibly with many subtypes, so children with dyslexia could be taught and treated properly. This would also provide the opportunity to master the learning mechanisms and contribute to the cure/management of other learning disabilities as well.

Cause and Effect Essay Essay

In Act Four Scene One Friar Lawrence explains the plan to Juliet, â€Å" Take thou this vial, being then in bed, And this distilled liquor drink thou off, When presently through all thy veins shall run A cold and drowsy humor, for no pulse Shall keep his native progress, but surcease. No warmth, no breath shall testify thou livest. The roses in thy lips and cheeks shall fade To paly ashes, thy eyes’ windows fall Like death when he shuts up the day of life. Each part, deprived of supple government, Shall, stiff and stark and cold, appear like death. And in this borrowed likeness of shrunk death Thou shalt continue two and forty hours,And then awake as from a pleasant sleep. Now, when the bridegroom in the morning comes To rouse thee from thy bed, there art thou dead. Then, as the manner of our country is, In thy best robes uncovered on the bier Thou shalt be borne to that same ancient vault Where all the kindred of the Capulets lie. In the meantime, against thou shalt awake, Shall Romeo by my letters know our drift,And hither shall he come, and he and I Will watch thy waking, and that very night Shall Romeo bear thee hence to Mantua. In Act Four Scene One Friar Lawrence explains the plan to Juliet, â€Å" Take thou this vial, being then in bed, And this distilled liquor drink thou off, When presently through all thy veins shall run A cold and drowsy humor, for no pulse Shall keep his native progress, but surcease. No warmth, no breath shall testify thou livest. The roses in thy lips and cheeks shall fade To paly ashes, thy eyes’ windows fall Like death when he shuts up the day of life. Each part, deprived of supple government, Shall, stiff and stark and cold, appear like death. And in this borrowed likeness of shrunk death Thou shalt continue two and forty hours,And then awake as from a pleasant sleep. Now, when the bridegroom in the morning comes To rouse thee from thy bed, there art thou dead. Then, as the manner of our country is, In thy best robes uncovered on the bier Thou shalt be borne to that same ancient vault Where all the kindred of the Capulets lie. In the meantime, against thou shalt awake, Shall Romeo by my letters know our drift,And hither shall he come, and he and I Will watch thy waking, and that very night Shall Romeo bear thee hence to Mantua. †

The Pitfall of Research Term Paper

The Pitfall of Research Term Paper After reading the thesis, there ought to be no doubt precisely what the research will be about. A request for an extension and extra time to finish the undertaking can be created in writing to the FPRI Committee. FPRI projects ought to be completed within 2 decades of receiving the award. Understand how to get started with a lot of international students have only an overall topic getting started with write my advertising term paper below. The Research Term Paper Trap Research paper outline examples are extremely hard for most students since they are so lengthy. Marketing papers offer the solutions to the difficulties. Writing a research paper is as essential as performing the true research or experiment itself and can seem to be an extremely daunting job. To be precise, a library research paper can be extremely simple if you understand how to address it. Ask the professor questions regarding the assignment if you're unclear. You'll do more interesting research and you'll receive a better grade. So far as the students are involved, writing a research paper is among the toughest and frustrating job in their opinion. In any case, very often students want to compose several papers at the exact same time. For that reason, it's so vital to understand how to make an outline for a term paper because it will function as a framework or draft to rely on. You might also state which type of approach it is that you will use in your paper for the whole discussion of your topic. What's more, we guarantee your future paper is going to be carried out in compliance with the greatest academic standards, so be confident that applying for our help, you make the very best alternative. In case you're not able to do the research paper because of any reason, you can depend on ProfEssays to write for you in accordance to your requirements. Getting do ne with the research procedure means having lots of information about the table. It's true that you could just begin writing, but even in case you get to the word or page requirement, your paper would probably lack any type of logical flow. Sooner or later, you will find that all of the research paper examples can help you start and get you moving in the proper direction for you to reach the greatest possible mark you are able to. If you're looking for research term paper topics forensic autopsy then you're on the correct page. Get creative in regards to selecting research sources. Anyone who's reading your example of a research paper will want in order to replicate your study without difficulty. In order to start outlining the research paper, determine why you're researching the subject. Thus, your introduction ought to be clear and precise. There aren't many actions to that you are able to include in all your research papers are a few experiments which you've conducted related to the topic or responses from real folks. Before you commence preparing an outline, we suggest that you try to find the sources readily available on your topic. It can be helpful as you're developing your outline to likewise write down a tentative collection of references. The Appeal of Research Term Paper There are a lot of main forms of marketing research. Taxes on economic activities are often known as consumption taxes that are levied on the purchase of products and services. It is essential for students to take care when looking for custom writing companies so they don't fall into traps of fraudulent and untrustworthy companies online. Students must realize that the business program is for a franchise outlet rather than an independent new enterprise. There are businesses which claim to offer online research paper assistance and research paper outline example but are actually fraud companies which offer substandard material. Consequently, data obtained from the greater quantity of phone surveys are somewhat more indicative of what the ordinary consumer thinks about a specific product or assistance. Keep your notes together with the bibliographic data that you'll need. The info collected during the advertising research has the ability to help the executives of the company to create the most suitable decision which would be only for the better. The Argument About Research Term Paper Therefore, should you need an excellent research term paper, please bear in mind that Marvelous-Essays. Low high quality essays won't ever get a great grade. Jan 10, in the event you properly formatting for over the absolute most frequently employed for research paper. The research paper outline can help to clarify the topic of the research paper, guide the subject matter to remain on course, and helps to begin the writing of the true research paper. Following your research paper outline is completed, it's time to get started writing. Possessing a great research paper outline also ensures you don't leave anything out.

Reducing Falls Throughout The Elderly - 2060 Words

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